A calculus is simply a means of computing something, and a moral calculus is just a means of calculating what the right moral decision is in a particular case.

An unconditional command. For Immanuel Kant, all of morality depended on a single categorical imperative. One version of that imperative was: Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law.

Cognitivism means moral facts exist either as facts about the observable world or human nature and can be known and tested.

The belief that both determinism and freedom of the will are true.

Any position in ethics which claims that the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences.

The cosmological argument or first cause argument is that everything has a cause, causal chains cannot be infinite, so there must be an uncaused cause at its origin. Thomas Aquinas' version: contingent beings are insufficient to account for the existence of contingent beings: there must exist a necessary being whose non-existence is an impossibility, and from which the existence of all contingent beings is derived.

An example which claims to undermine or refute the principle or theory against which it is advanced.

See: Relativism